What unites all these theologians, though, is their theological engagement with their identity as Palestinian Christians, and their reflection on the social and political context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
One of the distinct strands in Palestinian contextual theology is liberation theology. Influenced by postcolonial theories, the liberation theme encompasses a broad spectrum of connected topics including biblical hermeneutics, modern Israel, the status of the Old Testament, the Exodus narrative, the covenant, election, the land, and Christian Zionism.
Ateek aims to find a new biblical hermeneutic that emphasises a universal, inclusive view of God, over against the restrictive, exclusive views of some Jews and certain Western Christian theologians. A second major theme in Palestinian theology is reconciliation. The narrative of liberation was often heard in the s, s, and at the beginning of the s, the time of political tension and Intifadas. More recently, Palestinian theologians have begun to portray themselves as active reconcilers instead of critical liberationists.
Concepts of reconciliation are found, for example, in the writings of Elias Chacour and Salim Munayer and in the work of two prominent women theologians, Rula Khoury Mansour and Jean Zaru. One could question, however, whether such a focus on reconciliation can be viewed separately from the concept of liberation.
Ateek, for example, has argued that liberation and reconciliation are interconnected, but that liberation and justice are necessary before any form of reconciliation can be achieved.
Bishop Emeritus Munib Younan b. He describes witness as a creative diakonia , where the Christian faith functions as an inspiration to establish schools, universities, Bible translations, and ecumenical movements. However, a theology of witness does not speak radical truths to long-standing injustices in the same way liberation and reconciliation theologies do. Fourthly, a recurring theme in Palestinian contextual works is ecumenical and interfaith dialogue.
This has long been a group for the Arab intelligentsia, who promote Palestinian nationalism, unity, and dialogue. Palestinian Christians have gone through an advanced stage of Arabisation, Khoury argues. One could also reference such Palestinian solidarity to explain the ecumenical attempts for church unity and national unity made by the Patriarchs and Heads of Christian communities in their joint statements concerning the Israeli occupation.
The question remains, though: What will happen to this church unity and interreligious dialogue if group interests do not coincide any longer but oppose each other? Although this article has specifically focussed on texts written by Palestinian theologians and church leaders, there are parallel developments in popular religious expressions, such as pilgrimage and the veneration of saints. This has been highlighted in articles on the popular Palestinian Saint George veneration and on the way Palestinian Christians deal with the historicity of biblical places.
There was also Christian participation in the Palestinian delegation in the s peace process, with Anglican politician Dr Hanan Ashrawi b. While the spectrum of Palestinian contextual theology is broad and diverse, not all voices are equally represented.
In Palestinian theology there is, for example, an underrepresentation of female voices, just as there are no Arab female church leaders in the Palestinian Territories.
This does not mean that women have not played any role in this Christian revival. This article also referred to Palestinian Evangelical theologian Rula Khoury Mansour, who recently published her first book—which may signify the beginning of a broader theological engagement of young female Palestinian theologians who are now graduate students.
Another group that is generally underrepresented in the discussion of Palestinian theology are the Eastern Orthodox Christians, who in fact are the largest community among Palestinian Christians. Palestinian theologians from the Western school of theology—Roman Catholics, mainline Protestants, and Evangelicals—have played the major role in the formation of Palestinian contextual theology.
The most plausible explanation for their dominant role is their direct engagement with European and American Christian Zionist concepts of eschatology, the land, and the covenant.
It was their struggle with these questions which resulted in the emergence of a body of Palestinian contextual theology. This article has described how Palestinian theology and Christianity have developed since the s. It has reviewed the historical developments of the s, s, and s that made Palestinian clergy and theologians more outspoken. Developments such as the First Intifada and the indigenization of religious leadership have encouraged Palestinian Christian leaders to speak out.
Since the turn of the millennium, Palestinian theology has become more localised, by not prioritising international Christian connections but by emphasising the importance of local theological discussion. It is now possible to speak of a systematised body of Palestinian theology containing theological reflection on the concepts of liberation, reconciliation, witness, interreligious dialogue, and ecumenism. There are two different ways in which context has influenced Palestinian theology.
Beyond a select few like Naim Ateek and Mitri Raheb, Palestinian theologians—and Middle Eastern theologians in general—have gained little influence in Western theological scholarship or in the field of World Christianity. Misunderstanding in the West, ongoing emigration, and growing sectarianism have minimized the voices and public engagement of Palestinian Christians. As a result, Christians in the region are grouping together to survive and prioritise the needs of their own community.
Yet, the challenges Palestinian Christians face have enhanced their sensitivity to the prophetic vocation of their faith and paved the way for theologians to become creative and for citizens to become socially committed. The examples of Palestinian theologians mentioned in this article indicate that hope for the future is not lost. Palestinian theologians are currently localising the theological discourse even further by publishing more work in Arabic and working together with Arab theologians from other parts of the Middle East.
We might even see another revival of Palestinian Christianity if those church leaders and theologians keep showing vitality and courage for a continuation of the public engagement of Christian faith and theology.
It will be the task of other world theologians to engage with them, stimulate them, and include these Palestinian theologians in their international theological debates. This article is an adaptation of an earlier article I published in a Dutch journal called Radix. The editors of Radix kindly granted permission for the publication of this adapted version. Diacritical marks for transliterated terms have been used and all Arabic terms are italicised in the text, except for names of persons, places and organisations.
The English spelling of places that have a clearly established English name, like Jerusalem instead of the Arabic name Al-Quds , has been used. For names of persons, their own preferred spelling has been honoured. Edward W.
Said, Orientalism London: Penguin Books, []. Born to a Protestant family, Said identified as a secular humanist. Todd M. Zurlo eds. Other scholars have emphasized only one aspect of Palestinian theology. On Palestinian liberation theology: Samuel J. On the Bible: Lance C. Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology. Another seminal work in contextual theology: Robert J. Naim S. George F. Different solutions are possible. The city of Jerusalem might remain united but sovereignty in this case must be shared, exercised according to a principle of equality by both Israelis and Palestinians.
However, the city might also be divided if this be the desire of the two peoples who live here, with two distinct sovereignties, the aim of which would be to reach a true unity of hearts in the two parts of the city. Change the situation. Shake it out of its immobility. There is enough space in the land for us all.
Let all have the same dignity and equality. No occupation and no discrimination. Two peoples living together and loving each other according to the way they choose. They are able to love each other and to make peace together. These organizations pleaded for a more active role by the International Churches to end this situation of suffering. Despite these ecumenical efforts, President Donald Trump recognized Jerusalem as the capital of Israel in Palestinians were filled with anger and sadness.
This unlawful recognition gave a green light for more aggressive policies against the non-Jewish population, mainly Palestinian Christians and Muslims, on Church property and the sanctity of Al Aqsa Mosque. Giving Israel exclusive sovereignty over the city is considered as an illegal and dangerous development. The US position has also encouraged the Likud 11 A secular party, it was founded in by Menachem Begin and Ariel Sharon in an alliance with several right-wing parties.
Quoted by Rev. The role of the church in presenting a new discourse in diplomatic issues was shown recently. In , the Churches of Jerusalem were concerned and resisting Israeli policies.
The legislation would permit the state to confiscate ecclesiastical lands at the end of lease periods and to provide compensation to the companies on which the residential projects were built. In protest in February , the Heads of Churches took an unprecedented measure by closing the Holy Sepulcher Church for three days. The church is considered the most important site in Christianity.
It is major site for pilgrims while visiting the Holy Land as the Church complex includes the sites of Golgotha, where Jesus was crucified and also his tomb. The protest forced Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu to put on hold the aggressive legislative measures until further notice. Palestinian Christians continue searching for a way out of this ongoing suffering.
Nine years after the Kairos Palestine document was published in , 15 True peace cannot be achieved by fear of and separation from the other; It is only achieved when both the oppressed and oppressors are healed and redeemed; and consider each other as equal in dignity and worth.
God can and will make all things new, but he will use us the faithful to achieve this. Not only do Christian institutions provide much needed jobs, but also many Palestinian hospitals are Christian, including Al Ahli hospital in the Gaza Strip.
Hosam E. Naoum — himself a Palestinian — made a plea for the fuel needed to keep the generators at Al Ahli hospital running. Naoum said in a statement. Other Christian leaders in Israel and the occupied Palestinian Territories have also expressed their support for all sides.
The Palestinian Christians I spoke with believe the international Christian community has not done enough to respond to these calls.
They feel abandoned and wonder why Christians around the world are aligning themselves with Israel. American Christians, in particular, should be pushing back against their political leaders, who are some of the biggest supporters of the Israeli military, Saca said. Many American Christians support Israel as the Jewish homeland on the basis of religion. Some biblical texts suggest that God gives the land with no conditions or expectations.
The Book of Deuteronomy, for example, details calamities which will harm the land or separate people from the land, if they break the covenant with God. Scripture also asserts that the earth belongs to God.
Meanwhile, both Palestinians and Jewish people have deep connections to the historic land of Palestine. In the Bible, we see God depicted as forming a covenant with Abram and Isaac, while also blessing Ishmael. The state of Israel has a beginning point, May For some, it is clear therefore that modern Israel and biblical Israel are two distinct realities — the state a contemporary secular, political entity, and the land a geographical place promised, given and repossessed by God in the Torah and prophets.
Whether one views this question from a modern human rights perspective or through the prism of biblical covenant, all people are to be regarded as created in the image of God and as citizens, with security on the land and the other rights that implies.
As noted in the section on recent history, Zionism emerged in the s in Europe as a mostly secular Jewish movement working for a safe homeland and to fulfill the dream of restoring Jews to the land of their birth as a people. However, the home was established on land inhabited by Palestinians for centuries. Most Palestinian and other Middle Eastern Christians find this support troubling. Such support usually impacts their own local work and presence negatively see Palestinian Christians.
Some other Christians share these concerns. Anabaptists have long upheld the separation of religion and state. As some Anabaptists have experienced, states which favor one faith or ethnicity frequently discriminate against minority groups. In general, statehood is not seen as an end in itself.
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